Natural Resource Management Guidelines for Preston’s Spring Park (Version 8.0)

Key Steward: Jerry Wisenfluh, Friends of Wolf Run
Restoration Contractor: Gary Libby, Skybax Ecological Restoration
LFUCG Parks Contact: Chris Cooperrider

Process for creating this document:

• An Environmental Assessment is conducted on the property/area to determine if any biologically sensitive areas exist prior to any management plan development or on the ground work begins
• Kentucky Division of Forestry or the LFUCG Urban Forester conducts a forest inventory and creates a Forest Stewardship Plan
• The above information is used to divide the property/area into priority zones, these priority zones are then broken into individual management units and those units are assessed by parks staff or their consultants.
• Parks Staff then create a preliminary Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP) for the property/area based on the above data; the action steps included in the plan will be implemented using the appropriate technology and land use and protection standards as dictated by the Kentucky Division of Water and International Mountain Bike Association Construction and Maintenance Guidelines and the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources and the LFUCG Division of Environmental Services and Division of Water Quality guidelines.
• The preliminary LRMP is then reviewed and approved by the appropriate Citizen Advisory Board (if applicable)
• Parks Maintenance staff or their contractors then begins implementing the LRMP as budget and resources allow
• LRMPs will be reviewed every five years as to coincide with the re-inventory of the park (Continuous Forest Inventory)

Preston’s Cave Spring Park

Preston’s Cave Spring is one of the city’s natural area parks with geological, biological, scenic, and historical features unique to the Lexington-Fayette County area and to the state of Kentucky. The park is comprised of 16 acres of woodland encompassing a stream and adjoining floodplain with natural springs and an adjacent upslope area. Preston’s Cave Spring exists as a passive park and education-oriented recreation facility. There are currently no facilities or infrastructure at the park. LFUCG Parks and Recreation core values include “Community, Stewardship, Inclusion, Collaboration and Innovation”

Preston’s Cave Spring Mission and Goals

It is the park’s mission to maximize public access to the resources of the park for nature education and appreciation, while minimizing the impact of such use. Preston’s Cave Spring strives to maintain an ideal balance between preservation, education and recreation. In order to succeed in this mission, Preston’s Cave Spring’s stewardship volunteers and LFUCG Parks staff have adopted goals that will aid in this endeavor. These goals are as follows:

• Establish/maintain a trail system that allows safe public access for educational purposes, including both guided tours and personal explorations.
• Maintain and improve the ecosystem/habitats (native biodiversity) while protecting the geologic and historic features of the park through good land stewardship.
• Provide natural and historical interpretation for passive and scheduled visitors, through signs and educational programs.
• Preserve and protect natural and historical resources where discovered, by removing invasive species yearly. In order to help us achieve these goals, Parks and Recreation has established a land resource management plan to guide the land management actions in the park.

Park Management Zones

Based on the environmental assessment forest stewardship plan the park was divided into 7 two-acre management zones (primarily for invasive plant management and habitat improvement management) which do not necessarily reflect the forest or vegetation type maps completed by restoration contractors.  The 7 zones were created to help facilitate management and record keeping in smaller parcels.

The Land and Resource Management Plan

This Land and Resource Management Plan for the property is based on the available data and the actions included in the plan will be implemented using appropriate technology and land use protection standards as dictated by the Lexington Parks and Recreation and Forestry Best Management Practices, and the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources as well as the International Mountain Bike Association Trail standards. The Land and Resource Management Plan includes the following elements:

• Habitat Improvement through Invasive Species Removal
• Additions of Native Plants
• Additions of Native Fauna
• Trail Establishment
• Water Quality Testing
• Ongoing Maintenance

Habitat Improvement through Invasive Species Removal

Invasive species in general have established in many natural areas, including Preston’s Cave Spring, and are displacing native populations. The following invasive species are of general concern in central Kentucky, and those with an asterisk are currently being managed at Preston’s Cave Spring park:

• Bush honeysuckle (Lonicera )*
• Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica)
• Winter creeper (Euonymous fortunei)*
• English ivy (Hedera helix)
• Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) *
• Parrot feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum)
• Japanese stiltweed (Microstegium vimineum) *
• Porcelain berry (Ampelopsis brevipedunculata)
• Burning bush (Euonymus alatus)*
• Multi-flora rose (Rosa multiflora)*
• Bradford pear (Pyrus calleryana) *
• Privet (Ligustrum vulgare or sinense) *

Bush honeysuckle and winter creeper are the two invasive plants in large abundance and posing the greatest threat to the woodland habitat. The primary focus of the invasive control plan is to remove all existing bush honeysuckle plants in the park and monitor for new seedlings over time. The strategy for winter creeper control is to plant native species that have been shown to outcompete this invasive species. Manual removal of winter creeper vines from native trees will be performed as resources permit. Other invasive plants on the list are of secondary importance but will generally be removed as encountered or through special public events.

An invasive insect that is expanding its range to Lexington is the Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis or Agrilus marcopoli) also referred to as EAB. There are a small number of ash trees in the park which should be monitored and treatment for Emerald Ash Borer be considered.

Control methods for invasive species

The invasive plant control methods used on LFUCG park lands for the listed invasive species are current as of 2019. These control methods may change as scientist learn and explore better more efficient ways of treating these invasive species. (See Appendix I for Invasive Plant Control Methods). In order to apply chemical controls (i.e. herbicides) for invasive species control it is the policy of Lexington Parks and Recreation that the park manager, naturalist or stewardship volunteers have their Kentucky Department of Agriculture Non-Commercial Pesticide Applicator License and that all individuals dealing with the herbicides be fully trained.

Debris management for invasive species

Due to the large volume of bush honeysuckle, it is impractical to remove cut material from the park for disposal. Invasive shrubs will be left onsite to decompose over time. The preferred practice will be to cut limbs into small segments and distribute the material widely over the woodland floor to accelerate decay. In areas of dense and large invasive plants, it may be necessary to pile cut material in order to create enough working space to remove adjacent plants. These piles create habitat for wildlife, but should be kept to a minimum. Special volunteer events may be planned to remove woody material from the park in highly visited areas. Special care will be taken to remove garlic mustard during control events to prevent re-emergence.

Additions of Native Plants

Successful removal of invasive species creates open spaces in the park environment that are generally lacking in native plants, especially at ground and understory levels. In the absence of the invasive plants, these areas will naturally produce native plant species from the soil seed bank over time. Other native plants will be planted in certain areas to create biodiversity and prevent undesirable plants from re-establishing. Native species will be selected from those that have been historically found in central Kentucky forests and this area in particular. Plants also will be selected to achieve particular goals within distinct ecosystems of the park.

The park features four habitat areas. These areas are the immediate stream margin, the stream floodplain with associated springs and wetland areas, the upland forest, and the landscaped/open area by the entrance. In each, our aim is to first eradicate invasive species, plant with native alternatives, improve forest health, and provide food and shelter for native animals. Certain plants will be used along the stream margin for bank stabilization. Wetland areas in the floodplain also have unique requirements for plant selection. The park entrance has unique requirements because it is most frequently visited by the public and is regularly maintained.

Plants

All habitat improvement activities throughout the park utilize native grasses, herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees. Vegetative plantings can require transplants from other parts of the park or planting of new seeds or seedlings. Newly planted areas may require watering in times of drought, at minimum, three years. However, widespread watering in impractical due to the lack of pressurized water and the size of the park. Native seed propagation occurs throughout the year as different plants go to seed. An itemization of plants desirable for this park has been developed by area forest ecologists and plant specialists and can be found in Appendix II.

Any planting done on park property by parties other than Parks Staff, stewardship volunteer teams, or professional contractors requires:

1. Pre-approved planting plan.
2. Mark areas as “no mow zones with approved stakes or markers.
3. Post planting walk through with Parks Maintenance Staff and mowing contract coordinators

Additions of Native Fauna

All habitat improvement activities throughout the park have native wildlife as a management goal. There is no immediate plan for introducing native fauna, rather improvements to the plant ecosystem and water quality are hoped to naturally support native fauna. Additions of native fauna should be based on sound scientific study and be pre-approved by LFUCG Parks staff.

Trail Establishment

Trails may be established to facilitate public access to the park and to support restoration efforts. Trails should be sited to minimize negative impacts to the wetland environments and to avoid introducing erosion issues. Trail maintenance will be implemented which follows the guidelines described in the International Mountain Bike Association Trail standards.

Water Quality Monitoring

Water quality testing of the stormwater wetland and the spring and stream systems will be conducted throughout the year. The sampling times will typically be dictated by the Kentucky Division of Water, Lexington Fayette Urban County Government, Kentucky River Watershed Watch or Friends of Wolf Run. In order to collect water samples and collect field sampling data the staff person collecting the samples must be trained by the Kentucky River Watershed Watch network or the LFUCG Division of Water Quality.

Ongoing Maintenance

The meadow above the spring at the park entrance is an important area for small mammals, birds, insects, reptiles, and amphibians. It is the best place to highlight some of the Bluegrass’s native wildflowers. It also contains rare plant species in proximity to bedrock exposures. Ongoing maintenance includes planting native wildflowers as needed in order to enhance biodiversity and aesthetics. Also removing invasive species in order to retain the area as an open meadow is an important management tool. This needs to be done as needed by either mechanical removal (weed wrench or mower) or chemical removal (herbicides). Periodic mowing will be performed to maintain accessibility to the entrance area.

The floodplain and adjoining upland forest require regular maintenance to prevent the re-establishment of invasive species previously removed.  The species of particular concern are bush honeysuckle, garlic mustard, and Japanese stiltgrass.  The primary control method for each of these is mechanical removal. Both garlic mustard and stiltgrass should be removed before producing seed.

Trash left by visitors and washed in by storm events is an ongoing issue for the park. Periodic volunteer events will be scheduled to remove debris from the park.

Additional Resource Management Topics

In this section several other land management duties will be highlighted that don’t necessarily require their own section, though their importance is no less.

Mowing

The access parcel on Dunkirk Drive and area above the spring opening will be mowed by Lexington Parks and Recreation. No-Mow markers shall be installed to prevent inadvertent mowing of native plantings.

Park Boundary Maintenance

The boundary of the park should be checked routinely for compliance with Parks Encroachment Policy. Walking the boundary gives an idea of people movements off trail and where they are entering the park.

Transient Camps
On occasion, transients camp at the park. Parks staff should be notified and follow LFUCG Division of Homelessness Prevention and Intervention Policy. Regular patrols will give a leg up in visitor safety by being able to notify the proper authorities on any unauthorized campsites.

Down Tree Removal

Downed trees are to be left where they fall except directly on developed trails. These shall be moved to one side or the other of the trail corridor. Standing dead trees are to be left as snags for wildlife benefits so long as they do not present a hazard to visitors. Downed trees in the park add to habitat as well as nutrient cycling through decomposition. The only reasons to move a downed tree is if it is a safety hazard over the trail. When this is the case, cut the downed limb with the appropriate tool (hand saw or chainsaw) and move it off trail.

Limbs over trails

The trail system is meant for an open walkway for visitors to easily enjoy their hike. Limbs hanging over the trail are deemed to be a hazard to visitors traversing underneath and detract from the viewing pleasure of the visitor because over-hanging limbs can feel confining. Trees or shrubs that grow out over the trail should be pruned with loppers as needed during the growing season.

Vandalism Control

On occasion vandalism occurs at the park. The most common act is graffiti, which usually occurs on the benches. The quick removal of the usually bad language or symbols keeps the park a family friendly destination. It is Park’s goal to remove graffiti within one working day. Broken signs should be fixed, drug or sexual paraphernalia discarded, and proper authorities notified if necessary.

Volunteer Coordination

Volunteers are used frequently in land management. Activities include:

• -Trash and litter removal.
• -Trail and facility maintenance
• -Invasive Species Control
• -Native Planting and habitat improvements
• -Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
• -Educational and Interpretive activities

A Volunteer Stewardship Work Group specific to Preston’s Cave Spring Park will be established under the guidance of Friends of Wolf Run, Inc. and be under the supervision of the LFUCG Parks Deputy Director with support from LFUCG Parks Volunteer Coordinator.  A Key Steward (volunteer) will be identified and registered with LFUCG Parks to chair this work group and coordinate volunteer efforts in cooperation with LFUCG Parks Staff.

The Key Steward and Volunteer Stewardship Work Group will develop a specific plan of work and schedule work days for the approval of LFUCG Parks Management.

All volunteers participating in a scheduled work day should complete LFUCG Parks Volunteer Release Form prior to engaging work. Copies of release forms and a roster of participants should be turned in to the LFUCG Parks Volunteer Coordinator as soon as possible after the work day or volunteer event.

Any volunteers under the supervision of the Key Steward or the Volunteer Stewardship Work Group should complete training and orientation in safety and use of equipment and materials associated with the work at hand as specified by Parks policy.

No work is authorized on LFUCG Park Property without express written approval for the scheduled work day/activity and approval of the specific plan of work for the work day/activity.

Conclusion
This document was created for the purpose informing staff or volunteers on the land management operations at the park. Although an attempt was made to be comprehensive with this report some things may have been left out. Also new management ideas or techniques could be used. This is meant to be a working document and new protocols should be added as they are tried.

Appendix I

Invasive Plant Control Methods                                                

Bush Honeysuckle
Bush Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.) annually produce large numbers of viable seed that are readily dispersed by birds and germinate at high rates in a wide range of conditions. The different species are extremely adaptable and have successfully invaded a wide range of habitats and communities in North America. Manual and mechanical, environmental/cultural, and chemical methods are all useful to varying degrees in controlling Lonicera spp. The use of prescribed fire may be effective in some cases where the density of Lonicera spp. is low and sufficient fuels are available. Restoration potential is likely to be lowest where Lonicera spp. occur in high densities and there is a high likelihood of continued dispersal of seeds into the restoration area. Lonicera spp. have a high degree of reproductive vigor, a wide range of adaptability, and few pests and predators in North America. The potential for large-scale restoration of unmanaged natural areas or wildlands infested with Lonicera spp. is probably low. Restoration potential for managed natural areas or wildlands infested Lonicera spp. is probably moderate. If attacked during the early stages of colonization, the potential for successful management is high. (Pennsylvania Division of Natural Resources)

Note: These same control methods also apply to Burning bush (Euonymus alatus).

Manual and Mechanical Control
This method is appropriate for small initial populations or environmentally sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Using a Pulaski or similar digging tool remove the entire plant, including all roots. Juvenile plants can be hand pulled depending on soil conditions and root development. Larger stems, up to 6 cm (2.5 in), can be removed using a Weed Wrench or similar uprooting tools. Any portions of the root system not removed may resprout. All plant parts, including mature fruit, should be bagged and disposed of to prevent reestablishment (this is not currently done at the park as manual removal is typically done prior to fruiting). (Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council)

Chemical Control
In many cases manual or mechanical removal is not an option for controlling bush honeysuckle such as large stemmed honeysuckle and areas with large infestations, in these cases chemical control is the best choice.

In order to apply these chemical controls i.e. herbicides it is the policy of Natural Areas that the park manager or naturalist have their Kentucky Department of Agriculture Non-Commercial Pesticide Applicator License and that all staff dealing with the herbicides be fully trained by the park manager or naturalist.

Formulations of glyphosate (brand names Roundup, and for use near waterbodies, Rodeo) and formulations of triclopyr (brand names Garlon, Pathfinder, and others), have been used as foliar sprays or cut stump sprays and paints with varying degrees of success (Nyboer 1992). Glyphosate is a non-selective herbicide which kills both grasses and broad-leaved plants while triclopyr is a selective herbicide that kills broad-leaved plants but does little or no harm to grasses.

Cut limbs are to be broken up into 4’ sections and allowed to decompose on the forest floor.  No cut limbs or stumps are to be removed from any designated footpaths in the park

Foliar Spray Method
This method should be considered for large thickets of bush honeysuckle where risk to non-target species is minimal. Air temperature should be above 65°F to ensure absorption of herbicides. The herbicide should be applied to the foliage late in the growing season. Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic surfactant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pattern to reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide that may kill non-target partially-sprayed plants.

Cut Stump Method
This control method should be considered when treating individual bushes or where the presence of desirable species precludes foliar application. This method should only be used from late summer through the dormant season, as long as the ground is not frozen. (The Nature Conservancy and Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council)

Glyphosate: Horizontally cut bush honeysuckle stems at or near ground level. Immediately apply at least a 50% solution of glyphosate and water to the cut stump, covering the outer 20% of the stump. (Follow herbicide application labeling)

Japanese Honeysuckle
Japanese honeysuckle is a perennial vine that climbs by twisting its stems around vertical structures, including limbs and trunks of shrubs and small trees. Japanese honeysuckle often remains evergreen – its leaves remain attached through the winter. Flowers are tubular, with five fused petals, white to pink, turning yellow with age, very fragrant, and occur in pairs along the stem at leaf junctures. Stems and leaves are sometimes covered with fine, soft hairs. Japanese honeysuckle blooms from late April through July and sometimes into October. Small black fruits are produced in autumn, each containing 2­3 oval to oblong, dark brown seeds about 1/4 inch across. Growth and spread of Japanese honeysuckle is through vegetative (plant growth) and sexual (seed) means. It produces long vegetative runners that develop roots where stem and leaf junctions (nodes) come in contact with moist soil. Underground stems (rhizomes) help to establish and spread the plant locally. Long distance dispersal is by birds and other wildlife that readily consumes the fruits and defecate the seeds at various distances from the parent plant. (Plant Conservation Alliance Alien Plant Working Group)

Manual and Mechanical
For small patches, repeated pulling of entire vines and root systems may be effective. Hand pull seedlings and young plants when the soil is moist, holding low on the stem to remove the whole plant along with its roots. Monitor frequently and remove any new plants. Cut and remove twining vines to prevent them from girdling and killing shrubs and other plants. An effective method for removal of patches of honeysuckle covering the ground is to lift up and hold a portion of the vine mass with a rake and have a chain saw operator cut the stems low to the ground. Mowing large patches of honeysuckle may be useful if repeated regularly but is most effective when combined with herbicide application (see below). Mow at twice a year, first in mid-July and again in mid-September. Plants can also be grubbed out using a Pulaski or similar digging tool, taking care to remove all roots and runners. Burning removes above ground vegetation but does not kill the underground rhizomes, which will continue to sprout. In certain situations, tethered goats have been used to remove honeysuckle growth, but must be monitored to prevent their escape to the wild where they would become an added ecological threat.

Chemical
In moderate cold climates, Japanese honeysuckle leaves continue to photosynthesize long after most other plants have lost their leaves. This allows for application of herbicides when many native species are dormant. However, for effective control with herbicides, healthy green leaves must be present at application time and temperatures must be sufficient for plant activity. Several systemic herbicides (e.g., glyphosate and triclopyr) move through the plant to the roots when applied to the leaves or stems and have been used effectively on Japanese honeysuckle.

Following label guidelines, apply a 2.5% rate of glyphosate (e.g., Rodeo® for wetlands; Roundup® for uplands) mixed with water and an appropriate surfactant, to foliage from spring through fall. Repeat applications may be needed. Treatment in the fall, when many non-target plants are going dormant, is best. Also, a 25% glyphosate or triclopyr solution mixed with water can be applied to cut stem surfaces any time of year as long as the ground is not frozen.

Winter Creeper
Climbing euonymus, also known as winter creeper, Emerald’n Gold, and Gaiety, is an evergreen, clinging vine. It can form a dense groundcover or shrub to 3 feet in height, or climb 40-70 foot high vertical surfaces with the aid of aerial roots. Dark green, shiny, egg-shaped leaves, from 1-2 ½ inches long, with toothed margins and silvery veins, occur in pairs along the stems. Stems are narrow, minutely warty, and have abundant rootlets or trailing roots. Clusters of inconspicuous green-white flowers are produced on a long stalk from June to July and are followed in the autumn by pinkish to red capsules that split open to expose seeds adorned with a fleshy orange seed coat, or aril. Climbing euonymus spreads vegetatively with the help of lateral shoots produced along its long main branches and by new plants that emerge from rootlets also produced along the stem at short intervals. Vines climb rocks, trees, and other supporting structures. Flowers formed in the summer produce mature fruits by fall that are equipped with fleshy edible structures (arils) that are fed on by birds and other wildlife which disperse it. Climbing euonymus also escapes from neglected gardens and is carried by water, to undisturbed forest and riparian areas. (Plant Conservation Alliance Alien Plant Working Group)

Manual or Mechanical
Grubbing, a rather labor intensive method, is effective for small populations or environmentally sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Using a Pulaski or similar digging tool, remove the entire plant, including all roots and runners. Juvenile plants can be hand-pulled when the soil is moist and root systems are small. Any portions of the root system remaining may resprout. All plant parts including stem fragments and mature fruits should be bagged and disposed of in a trash dumpster to prevent reestablishment.

Chemical
Cut stem application Cut stem treatment, using systemic herbicides applied to freshly cut stems, is effective in areas where vines are well established on or around non-target plants, or where they have grown into tree canopies or other vertical surfaces. Cut the stem as close to the ground as possible and immediately apply a solution of 2-4D, or 25% solution of glyphosate (e.g., Roundup®) or triclopyr (e.g., Garlon) and water to the cut stem. This procedure is effective at temperatures as low as 40° F. Subsequent foliar application of these herbicides may be required. Cutting without the application of herbicides is generally not recommended because this will lead to root sprouting.

Foliar application
Foliar applications of herbicide can be used to control large populations. It may be necessary to precede foliar sprays with cut stem treatments to reduce the risk of damage to non-target plants. First use a line trimmer on the area to be treated to cut back the wintercreeper. Once the new flush of leaves appear apply the herbicide. Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic surfactant to thoroughly wet all foliage but not so heavily that it drips off leaves where it may affect desirable plants. If being used near waterways a waterway safe glyphosate should be used. Ambient air temperature should be above 65° F.

 

Garlic Mustard
Garlic mustard is a cool season biennial herb with stalked, triangular to heart-shaped, coarsely toothed leaves that give off an odor of garlic when crushed. First-year plants appear as a rosette of green leaves close to the ground. Rosettes remain green through the winter and develop into mature flowering plants the following spring. Flowering plants of garlic mustard reach from 2 to 3-½ feet in height and produce button like clusters of small white flowers, each with four petals in the shape of a cross. After spending the first half of its two-year life cycle as a rosette of leaves, garlic mustard plants develop rapidly the following spring into mature plants that flower, produce seed and die by late June. In the mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain region, seeds are produced in erect, slender, four-sided pods, called siliques, beginning in May. Siliques become tan and papery as they mature and contain shiny black seeds in a row. By late June, most of the leaves have faded away and garlic mustard plants can be recognized only by the dead and dying stalks of dry, pale brown seedpods that may remain and hold viable seed throughout the summer. A single plant can produce thousands of seeds, which scatter as much as several meters from the parent plant. Depending upon conditions, garlic mustard flowers either self-fertilize or are cross-pollinated by a variety of insects. Self-fertilized seed is genetically identical to the parent plant, enhancing its ability to colonize an area. Although water may transport seeds of garlic mustard, they do not float well and are probably not carried far by wind. Long distance dispersal is most likely aided by human activities and wildlife. Additionally, because white-tailed deer prefer native plants to garlic mustard, large deer populations may help to expand it by removing competing native plants and exposing the soil and seedbed through trampling.

Manual or Mechanical
Because the seeds of garlic can remain viable in the soil for five years or more, effective management requires a long term commitment. The goal is to prevent seed production until the stored seed is exhausted. Hand removal of plants is possible for light infestations and when desirable native species co-occur. Care must be taken to remove the plant with its entire root system because new plants can sprout from root fragments. This is best achieved when the soil is moist, by grasping low and firmly on the plant and tugging gently until the main root loosens from the soil and the entire plant pulls out. Pulled plants should be removed from site if at all possible, especially if flowers are present.

For larger infestations of garlic mustard, or when hand-pulling is not practical, flowering stems can be cut at ground level or within several inches of the ground, to prevent seed production. If stems are cut too high, the plant may produce additional flowers at leaf axils. Once seedpods are present, but before the seeds have matured or scattered, the stalks can be clipped, bagged and removed from the site to help prevent continued buildup of seed stores. This can be done through much of the summer.

Parrotfeather
Parrotfeather is found in the stream from the Boils to the Final Sink at McConnell Springs. Parrotfeather (Myriophyllum aquaticum) gets its name from its feather-like leaves which are arranged around the stem in whorls of four to six. Parrotfeather has both submersed and emergent leaves. The bright green emergent leaves are stiffer and a darker green than the submersed leaves. The emergent stems and leaves are the most distinctive trait of parrotfeather, as they can grow up to a foot above the water surface and look almost like small fir trees. Submersed leaves are limp and often appear to be decaying but the stems are very robust. Adventitious roots form at the nodes. When attached to a bank, parrotfeather stems can extend out several yards over the water surface. This rhizomenous perennial exhibits an annual pattern of growth. In the spring, shoots begin to grow rapidly from overwintering rhizomes as water temperatures increase. Rhizomes function as a support structure for adventitious roots and provide buoyancy for emergent growth during the summer. Emergent stems and leaves extend from a few inches to over one foot above the waters surface. Underwater leaves tend to senesce as the season advances. Even in South America, virtually all parrotfeather plants are female. Male plants are unknown outside of South America, so no seeds are produced in North American populations. Since parrotfeather also lacks tubers or other specialized reproductive overwintering structures like turions, it spreads exclusively by plant fragments outside of its native range (South America).

Chemical Control
Although parrotfeather is considered by some to be susceptible to herbicides, it is difficult to achieve complete control. The emergent stems and leaves have a thick waxy cuticle and it requires a wetting agent to penetrate this cuticle. Often the weight of the spray will cause the emergent vegetation to collapse into the water where the herbicide is washed off before it can be translocated throughout the plant. Westerdahl and Getsinger report excellent control of parrotfeather with several herbicides including 2,4-D, diquat, and endothall. Fair control was obtained with glyphosate. The Monsanto Company suggested that applying a 1 3/4 percent solution of Rodeo® (aquatic version of Roundup®) with surfactant to the plants in the summer or fall when water levels are low would give about 95 percent control of the plants. Control of parrotfeather may be achieved with low-volatility ester of 2,4-D at 4.4-8.9 kg ha, sprayed onto the emergent foliage. The granular formulation of 2,4-D was needed to control parrotfeather for periods greater than 12 months. It is more effective when applied to young, actively growing plants. More recently, imazapyr and triclopyr have been used to manage parrotfeather.

Manual or Mechanical Control
Because this plant can spread readily through fragmentation of rhizomes, mechanical controls such as cutting, harvesting, and rotovation (underwater rototilling) should be used only when the extent of the infestation is such that all available niches have been filled. Using mechanical controls while the plant is still invading, will tend to enhance its rate of spread. parrotfeather populations can be successfully harvested, but the dense tough rhizomes are very heavy and the plant regrows rapidly. In Longview, the Diking District relies on a dragline to remove infesting parrotfeather plants. A truck-mounted crane with a special attachment plucks weeds out of the ditch. They conduct the drag line operation from August to December in each year with control generally lasting for one growing season. (University of Florida Center for Invasive Aquatic Plants)

Japanese Stiltgrass
Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum) is an invasive grass introduced from Asia. It appears along trails and stream banks in central Kentucky parks. It is able to germinate in shady conditions as well. The annual plants have prolific seed production that allow rapid dispersal by humans, wildlife, and water.

Chemical Control
Glyphosate, especially applied in late fall can be effective, and imazapyr applied in the spring may work. Because manual control methods are relatively easy and effective, chemical control is not advisable in riparian settings.

Manual or Mechanical Control
Because this is an annual grass, manual removal of existing stands can be effective.  The shallow root system allow for easy pulling of plants in small patches. Larger stands can be cut with string trimmers or a weed scythe. Care should be taken to apply control methods before seed production occurs.